What Is Injection Molding?

Injection molding (U.S. spelling: injection molding) is a manufacturing process for producing parts by injecting molten material into a mold, or mold. Injection molding can be performed with a host of materials mainly including metals (for which the process is called die-casting), glasses, elastomers, confections, and most commonly thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers. Material for the part is fed into a heated barrel, mixed (using a helical screw), and injected into a mold cavity, where it cools and hardens to the configuration of the cavity. After a product is designed, usually by an industrial designer or an engineer, molds are made by a mold-maker (or toolmaker) from metal, usually either steel or aluminum, and precision-machined to form the features of the desired part. Injection molding is widely used for manufacturing a variety of parts, from the smallest components to entire body panels of cars. Advances in 3D printing technology, using photopolymers that do not melt during the injection molding of some lower-temperature thermoplastics, can be used for some simple injection molds.

Injection molding uses a special-purpose machine that has three parts: the injection unit, the mold and the clamp. Parts to be injection-molded must be very carefully designed to facilitate the molding process; the material used for the part, the desired shape and features of the part, the material of the mold, and the properties of the molding machine must all be taken into account. The versatility of injection molding is facilitated by this breadth of design considerations and possibilities.

Applications
Injection molding is used to create many things such as wire spools, packaging, bottle caps, automotive parts and components, toys, pocket combs, some musical instruments (and parts of them), one-piece chairs and small tables, storage containers, mechanical parts (including gears), and most other plastic products available today. Injection molding is the most common modern method of manufacturing plastic parts; it is ideal for producing high volumes of the same object.


Process characteristics

Thermoplastic resin pellets for injection molding
Injection molding uses a ram or screw-type plunger to force molten plastic or rubber material into a mold cavity; this solidifies into a shape that has conformed to the contour of the mold. It is most commonly used to process both thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers, with the volume used of the former being considerably higher. Thermoplastics are prevalent due to characteristics that make them highly suitable for injection molding, such as ease of recycling, versatility for a wide variety of applications, and ability to soften and flow on heating. Thermoplastics also have an element of safety over thermosets; if a thermosetting polymer is not ejected from the injection barrel in a timely manner, chemical crosslinking may occur causing the screw and check valves to seize and potentially damaging the injection molding machine.

Injection molding consists of the high-pressure injection of the raw material into a mold, which shapes the polymer into the desired form. Molds can be of a single cavity or multiple cavities. In multiple cavity molds, each cavity can be identical and form the same parts or can be unique and form multiple different geometries during a single cycle. Molds are generally made from tool steels, but stainless steels and aluminum molds are suitable for certain applications. Aluminum molds are typically ill-suited for high volume production or parts with narrow dimensional tolerances, as they have inferior mechanical properties and are more prone to wear, damage, and deformation during the injection and clamping cycles; however, aluminum molds are cost-effective in low-volume applications, as mold fabrication costs and time are considerably reduced. Many steel molds are designed to process well over a million parts during their lifetime and can cost hundreds of thousands of dollars to fabricate.

When thermoplastics are molded, typically pelletized raw material is fed through a hopper into a heated barrel with a reciprocating screw. Upon entrance to the barrel, the temperature increases and the Van der Waals forces that resist relative flow of individual chains are weakened as a result of increased space between molecules at higher thermal energy states. This process reduces its viscosity, which enables the polymer to flow with the driving force of the injection unit. The screw delivers the raw material forward, mixes and homogenizes the thermal and viscous distributions of the polymer, and reduces the required heating time by mechanically shearing the material and adding a significant amount of frictional heating to the polymer. The material feeds forward through a check valve and collects at the front of the screw into a volume known as a shot. A shot is the volume of material that is used to fill the mold cavity, compensate for shrinkage, and provide a cushion (approximately 10% of the total shot volume, which remains in the barrel and prevents the screw from bottoming out) to transfer pressure from the screw to the mold cavity. When enough material has gathered, the material is forced at high pressure and velocity into the part forming cavity. The exact amount of shrinkage is a function of the resin being used, and can be relatively predictable.[4] To prevent spikes in pressure, the process normally uses a transfer position corresponding to a 95–98% full cavity where the screw shifts from a constant velocity to a constant pressure control. Often injection times are well under 1 second. Once the screw reaches the transfer position the packing pressure is applied, which completes mold filling and compensates for thermal shrinkage, which is quite high for thermoplastics relative to many other materials. The packing pressure is applied until the gate (cavity entrance) solidifies. Due to its small size, the gate is normally the first place to solidify through its entire thickness.[3]: 16  Once the gate solidifies, no more material can enter the cavity; accordingly, the screw reciprocates and acquires material for the next cycle while the material within the mold cools so that it can be ejected and be dimensionally stable. This cooling duration is dramatically reduced by the use of cooling lines circulating water or oil from an external temperature controller. Once the required temperature has been achieved, the mold opens and an array of pins, sleeves, strippers, etc. are driven forward to demold the article. Then, the mold closes and the process is repeated.

For a two-shot mold, two separate materials are incorporated into one part. This type of injection molding is used to add a soft touch to knobs, to give a product multiple colors, or to produce a part with multiple performance characteristics. 
For thermosets, typically two different chemical components are injected into the barrel. These components immediately begin irreversible chemical reactions that eventually crosslinks the material into a single connected network of molecules. As the chemical reaction occurs, the two fluid components permanently transform into a viscoelastic solid. Solidification in the injection barrel and screw can be problematic and have financial repercussions; therefore, minimizing the thermoset curing within the barrel is vital. This typically means that the residence time and temperature of the chemical precursors are minimized in the injection unit. The residence time can be reduced by minimizing the barrel's volume capacity and by maximizing the cycle times. These factors have led to the use of a thermally isolated, cold injection unit that injects the reacting chemicals into a thermally isolated hot mold, which increases the rate of chemical reactions and results in shorter time required to achieve a solidified thermoset component. After the part has solidified, valves close to isolate the injection system and chemical precursors, and the mold opens to eject the molded parts. Then, the mold closes and the process repeats.

Pre-molded or machined components can be inserted into the cavity while the mold is open, allowing the material injected in the next cycle to form and solidify around them. This process is known as Insert molding and allows single parts to contain multiple materials. This process is often used to create plastic parts with protruding metal screws so they can be fastened and unfastened repeatedly. This technique can also be used for In-mold labelling and film lids may also be attached to molded plastic containers.
A parting line, sprue, gate marks, and ejector pin marks are usually present on the final part. None of these features are typically desired, but are unavoidable due to the nature of the process. Gate marks occur at the gate that joins the melt-delivery channels (sprue and runner) to the part forming cavity. Parting line and ejector pin marks result from minute misalignments, wear, gaseous vents, clearances for adjacent parts in relative motion, and/or dimensional differences of the melting surfaces contacting the injected polymer. Dimensional differences can be attributed to non-uniform, pressure-induced deformation during injection, machining tolerances, and non-uniform thermal expansion and contraction of mold components, which experience rapid cycling during the injection, packing, cooling, and ejection phases of the process. Mold components are often designed with materials of various coefficients of thermal expansion. These factors cannot be simultaneously accounted for without astronomical increases in the cost of design, fabrication, processing, and quality monitoring. The skillful mold and part designer positions these aesthetic detriments in hidden areas if feasible.

History
American inventor John Wesley Hyatt, together with his brother Isaiah, patented the first injection molding machine in 1872. This machine was relatively simple compared to machines in use today: it worked like a large hypodermic needle, using a plunger to inject plastic through a heated cylinder into a mold. The industry progressed slowly over the years, producing products such as collar stays, buttons, and hair combs.

The German chemists Arthur Eichengrün and Theodore Becker invented the first soluble forms of cellulose acetate in 1903, which was much less flammable than cellulose nitrate.[7] It was eventually made available in a powder form from which it was readily injection molded. Arthur Eichengrün developed the first injection molding press in 1919. In 1939, Arthur Eichengrün patented the injection molding of plasticized cellulose acetate.

The industry expanded rapidly in the 1940s because World War II created a huge demand for inexpensive, mass-produced products. In 1946, American inventor James Watson Hendry built the first screw injection machine, which allowed much more precise control over the speed of injection and the quality of articles produced. This machine also allowed material to be mixed before injection, so that colored or recycled plastic could be added to virgin material and mixed thoroughly before being injected. In the 1970s, Hendry went on to develop the first gas-assisted injection molding process, which permitted the production of complex, hollow articles that cooled quickly. This greatly improved design flexibility as well as the strength and finish of manufactured parts while reducing production time, cost, weight and waste. By 1979, plastic production overtook steel production, and by 1990, aluminum molds were widely used in injection molding. Today, screw injection machines account for the vast majority of all injection machines.

The plastic injection molding industry has evolved over the years from producing combs and buttons to producing a vast array of products for many industries including automotive, medical, aerospace, consumer products, toys, plumbing, packaging, and construction. 

Examples of polymers best suited for the process
Most polymers, sometimes referred to as resins, may be used, including all thermoplastics, some thermosets, and some elastomers. Since 1995, the total number of available materials for injection molding has increased at a rate of 750 per year; there were approximately 18,000 materials available when that trend began. Available materials include alloys or blends of previously developed materials, so product designers can choose the material with the best set of properties from a vast selection. Major criteria for selection of a material are the strength and function required for the final part, as well as the cost, but also each material has different parameters for molding that must be taken into account.   Other considerations when choosing an injection molding material include flexural modulus of elasticity, or the degree to which a material can be bent without damage, as well as heat deflection and water absorption. Common polymers like epoxy and phenolic are examples of thermosetting plastics while nylon, polyethylene, and polystyrene are thermoplastic. Until comparatively recently, plastic springs were not possible, but advances in polymer properties make them now quite practical. Applications include buckles for anchoring and disconnecting outdoor-equipment webbing.


Equipment
Main article: Injection molding machine
 
Paper clip mold opened in injection molding machine; the nozzle is visible at right
Injection molding machines consist of a material hopper, an injection ram or screw-type plunger, and a heating unit.   Also known as platens, they hold the molds in which the components are shaped. Presses are rated by tonnage, which expresses the amount of clamping force that the machine can exert. This force keeps the mold closed during the injection process. Tonnage can vary from less than 5 tons to over 9,000 tons, with the higher figures used in comparatively few manufacturing operations. The total clamp force needed is determined by the projected area of the part being molded. This projected area is multiplied by a clamp force of from 1.8 to 7.2 tons for each square centimeter of the projected areas. As a rule of thumb, 4 or 5 tons/in2 can be used for most products. If the plastic material is very stiff, it requires more injection pressure to fill the mold, and thus more clamp tonnage to hold the mold closed. The required force can also be determined by the material used and the size of the part. Larger parts require higher clamping force. 

Mold
Mold or die are the common terms used to describe the tool used to produce plastic parts in molding.
Since molds have been expensive to manufacture, they were usually only used in mass production where thousands of parts were being produced. Typical molds are constructed from hardened steel, pre-hardened steel, aluminum, and/or beryllium-copper alloy. The choice of material to build a mold from is primarily one of economics; in general, steel molds cost more to construct, but their longer lifespan offsets the higher initial cost over a higher number of parts made before wearing out. Pre-hardened steel molds are less wear-resistant and are used for lower volume requirements or larger components; their typical steel hardness is 38–45 on the Rockwell-C scale. Hardened steel molds are heat treated after machining; these are by far superior in terms of wear resistance and lifespan. Typical hardness ranges between 50 and 60 Rockwell-C (HRC). Aluminum molds can cost substantially less, and when designed and machined with modern computerized equipment can be economical for molding tens or even hundreds of thousands of parts. Beryllium copper is used in areas of the mold that require fast heat removal or areas that see the most shear heat generated. The molds can be manufactured either by CNC machining or by using electrical discharge machining processes.
⦁    Injection molding die with side pulls
 
"A" side of die for 25% glass-filled acetal with 2 side pulls.

 
Close up of removable insert in "A" side.

 
"B" side of die with side pull actuators.

 
Insert removed from die.


Mold design
 













Standard two plates tooling – core and cavity are inserts in a mold base – "family mold" of five different parts
The mold consists of two primary components, the injection mold (A plate) and the ejector mold (B plate). These components are also referred to as molder and mold maker. Plastic resin enters the mold through a sprue or gate in the injection mold; the sprue bushing is to seal tightly against the nozzle of the injection barrel of the molding machine and to allow molten plastic to flow from the barrel into the mold, also known as the cavity.[11]: 141  The sprue bushing directs the molten plastic to the cavity images through channels that are machined into the faces of the A and B plates. These channels allow plastic to run along them, so they are referred to as runners. The molten plastic flows through the runner and enters one or more specialized gates and into the cavity geometry to form the desired part.











 
(A) Sprue, (B)&(C)runner and (D)gates in actual injection molding product for toys
The amount of resin required to fill the sprue, runner and cavities of a mold comprises a "shot". Trapped air in the mold can escape through air vents that are ground into the parting line of the mold, or around ejector pins and slides that are slightly smaller than the holes retaining them. If the trapped air is not allowed to escape, it is compressed by the pressure of the incoming material and squeezed into the corners of the cavity, where it prevents filling and can also cause other defects. The air can even become so compressed that it ignites and burns the surrounding plastic material. 
To allow for removal of the molded part from the mold, the mold features must not overhang one another in the direction that the mold opens, unless parts of the mold are designed to move from between such overhangs when the mold opens using components called Lifters.
Sides of the part that appear parallel with the direction of draw (the axis of the cored position (hole) or insert is parallel to the up and down movement of the mold as it opens and closes) are typically angled slightly, called draft, to ease release of the part from the mold. Insufficient draft can cause deformation or damage. The draft required for mold release is primarily dependent on the depth of the cavity, the deeper the cavity, the more draft necessary. Shrinkage must also be taken into account when determining the draft required. If the skin is too thin, then the molded part tends to shrink onto the cores that form while cooling and cling to those cores, or the part may warp, twist, blister or crack when the cavity is pulled away. 
A mold is usually designed so that the molded part reliably remains on the ejector (B) side of the mold when it opens, and draws the runner and the sprue out of the (A) side along with the parts. The part then falls freely when ejected from the (B) side. Tunnel gates, also known as submarine or mold gates, are located below the parting line or mold surface. An opening is machined into the surface of the mold on the parting line. The molded part is cut (by the mold) from the runner system on ejection from the mold. Ejector pins, also known as knockout pins, are circular pins placed in either half of the mold (usually the ejector half), which push the finished molded product, or runner system out of a mold.  The ejection of the article using pins, sleeves, strippers, etc., may cause undesirable impressions or distortion, so care must be taken when designing the mold.

The standard method of cooling is passing a coolant (usually water) through a series of holes drilled through the mold plates and connected by hoses to form a continuous pathway. The coolant absorbs heat from the mold (which has absorbed heat from the hot plastic) and keeps the mold at a proper temperature to solidify the plastic at the most efficient rate. 

To ease maintenance and venting, cavities and cores are divided into pieces, called inserts, and sub-assemblies, also called inserts, blocks, or chase blocks. By substituting interchangeable inserts, one mold may make several variations of the same part.
More complex parts are formed using more complex molds. These may have sections called slides, that move into a cavity perpendicular to the draw direction, to form overhanging part features. When the mold is opened, the slides are pulled away from the plastic part by using stationary “angle pins” on the stationary mold half. These pins enter a slot in the slides and cause the slides to move backward when the moving half of the mold opens. The part is then ejected and the mold closes. The closing action of the mold causes the slides to move forward along the angle pins. 

A mold can produce several copies of the same parts in a single "shot". The number of "impressions" in the mold of that part is often incorrectly referred to as cavitation. A tool with one impression is often called a single impression (cavity) mold. A mold with two or more cavities of the same parts is usually called a multiple impression (cavity) mold. Some extremely high production volume molds (like those for bottle caps) can have over 128 cavities.
In some cases, multiple cavity tooling molds a series of different parts in the same tool. Some toolmakers call these molds family molds, as all the parts are related—e.g., plastic model kits.[19]: 114 
Some molds allow previously molded parts to be reinserted to allow a new plastic layer to form around the first part. This is often referred to as overmolding. This system can allow for production of one-piece tires and wheels.
Multi-shot molding
 
Two-shot injection molded keycaps from a computer keyboard
Two-shot or multi-shot molds are designed to "overmould" within a single molding cycle and must be processed on specialized injection molding machines with two or more injection units. This process is actually an injection molding process performed twice and therefore has a much smaller margin of error. In the first step, the base color material is molded into a basic shape, which contains spaces for the second shot. Then the second material, a different color, is injection-molded into those spaces. Pushbuttons and keys, for instance, made by this process have markings that cannot wear off, and remain legible with heavy use.
Mold storage
Manufacturers go to great lengths to protect custom molds due to their high average costs. The perfect temperature and humidity level is maintained to ensure the longest possible lifespan for each custom mold. Custom molds, such as those used for rubber injection molding, are stored in temperature and humidity controlled environments to prevent warping.
Tool materials
Tool steel is often used. Mild steel, aluminum, nickel or epoxy are suitable only for prototype or very short production runs.[1] Modern hard aluminum (7075 and 2024 alloys) with proper mold design, can easily make molds capable of 100,000 or more part life with proper mold maintenance. 
 
Beryllium-copper insert (yellow) on injection molding mold for ABS resin


Machining
Molds are built through two main methods: standard machining and EDM. Standard machining, in its conventional form, has historically been the method of building injection molds. With technological developments, CNC machining became the predominant means of making more complex molds with more accurate mold details in less time than traditional methods.
The electrical discharge machining (EDM) or spark erosion process has become widely used in mold making. As well as allowing the formation of shapes that are difficult to machine, the process allows pre-hardened molds to be shaped so that no heat treatment is required. Changes to a hardened mold by conventional drilling and milling normally require annealing to soften the mold, followed by heat treatment to harden it again. EDM is a simple process in which a shaped electrode, usually made of copper or graphite, is very slowly lowered onto the mold surface over a period of many hours, which is immersed in paraffin oil (kerosene). A voltage applied between tool and mold causes spark erosion of the mold surface in the inverse shape of the electrode. 

Cost
The number of cavities incorporated into a mold directly correlate in molding costs. Fewer cavities require far less tooling work, so limiting the number of cavities lowers initial manufacturing costs to build an injection mold.
As the number of cavities play a vital role in molding costs, so does the complexity of the part's design. Complexity can be incorporated into many factors such as surface finishing, tolerance requirements, internal or external threads, fine detailing or the number of undercuts that may be incorporated. 

Further details, such as undercuts, or any feature that needs additional tooling, increases mold cost. Surface finish of the core and cavity of molds further influences cost.

Rubber injection molding process produces a high yield of durable products, making it the most efficient and cost-effective method of molding. Consistent vulcanization processes involving precise temperature control significantly reduces all waste material.

Injection process
 
Video explanation
 
Small injection molding machine showing hopper, nozzle and die area
Usually, the plastic materials are formed in the shape of pellets or granules and sent from the raw material manufacturers in paper bags. With injection molding, pre-dried granular plastic is fed by a forced ram from a hopper into a heated barrel. As the granules are slowly moved forward by a screw-type plunger, the plastic is forced into a heated chamber, where it is melted. As the plunger advances, the melted plastic is forced through a nozzle that rests against the mold, allowing it to enter the mold cavity through a gate and runner system. The mold remains cold so the plastic solidifies almost as soon as the mold is filled. 

Injection molding cycle
The sequence of events during the injection mold of a plastic part is called the injection molding cycle. The cycle begins when the mold closes, followed by the injection of the polymer into the mold cavity. Once the cavity is filled, a holding pressure is maintained to compensate for material shrinkage. In the next step, the screw turns, feeding the next shot to the front screw. This causes the screw to retract as the next shot is prepared. Once the part is sufficiently cool, the mold opens and the part is ejected.

Scientific versus traditional molding
Traditionally, the injection portion of the molding process was done at one constant pressure to fill and pack the cavity. This method, however, allowed for a large variation in dimensions from cycle-to-cycle. More commonly used now is scientific or decoupled molding, a method pioneered by RJG Inc.[24][25][26] In this the injection of the plastic is "decoupled" into stages to allow better control of part dimensions and more cycle-to-cycle (commonly called shot-to-shot in the industry) consistency. First the cavity is filled to approximately 98% full using velocity (speed) control. Although the pressure should be sufficient to allow for the desired speed, pressure limitations during this stage are undesirable. Once the cavity is 98% full, the machine switches from velocity control to pressure control, where the cavity is "packed out" at a constant pressure, where sufficient velocity to reach desired pressures is required. This lets workers control part dimensions to within thousandths of an inch or better. 


Different types of injection molding processes
 
 
Sandwich-molded toothbrush handle
Although most injection molding processes are covered by the conventional process description above, there are several important molding variations including, but not limited to:
Die casting
⦁    Metal injection molding
⦁    Thin-wall injection  molding
⦁    Injection molding of liquid silicone rubber
⦁    Reaction injection molding
⦁    Micro injection molding
⦁    Gas-assisted injection molding
⦁    Cube mold technology
A more comprehensive list of injection molding processes may be found here:


Process troubleshooting
Like all industrial processes, injection molding can produce flawed parts, even in toys. In the field of injection molding, troubleshooting is often performed by examining defective parts for specific defects and addressing these defects with the design of the mold or the characteristics of the process itself. Trials are often performed before full production runs in an effort to predict defects and determine the appropriate specifications to use in the injection process.

When filling a new or unfamiliar mold for the first time, where shot size for that mold is unknown, a technician/tool setter may perform a trial run before a full production run. They start with a small shot weight and fills gradually until the mold is 95 to 99% full. Once they achieve this, they apply a small amount of holding pressure and increase holding time until gate freeze off (solidification time) has occurred. Gate freeze off time can be determined by increasing the hold time, and then weighing the part. When the weight of the part does not change, the gate has frozen, and no more material is injected into the part. Gate solidification time is important, as this determines cycle time and the quality and consistency of the product, which itself is an important issue in the economics of the production process. Holding pressure is increased until the parts are free of sinks and part weight has been achieved.